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Academic libraries, like other university departments, are increasingly asked to demonstrate their value to institutions. This study presents the results of analyses predicting the relationships between library usage and first-year students’ retention, college experiences, and academic success at a large, public research university. Usage statistics were gathered across 13 different library access points and outcomes were derived institutionally (e.g., retention, grade point average) and aggregated through student surveys (e.g., academic engagement, scholarship activity). This presentation won AIRUM's "best of region" presentation.
Low-income and working-class students face many challenges related to the costs and affordability of higher education; yet, little is known about the ongoing financial decisions made by low-income and working-class students while they are currently enrolled in higher education and how those decisions might differ from those made by their middle/upper-class peers. This paper examines the different financial decisions and behaviors of undergraduate students from five social class backgrounds using data from undergraduates enrolled at 11 large, public research universities in 2010. Results suggest that low-income and working-class students are more likely to make decisions that could negatively impact their immediate academic experience, serve as disruptive barriers to success, delay or prolong graduation, or lead to increased debt upon graduation.
Social class is often recognized as an “invisible” diversity characteristic, although social class identity may be more salient for working-class students in higher education. This presentation examines the participation of students from different social classes in Greek Life at several large, public universities. Relying upon survey and document analysis, this program increases awareness of social class and provides suggestions on how campuses can create an affirming and welcoming space for working-class students in Greek Life.
In summer 2007, the majority of first-year (non-transfer) students (4,500+) completed the Cooperative Institutional Research Program (CIRP) survey during Orientation sessions at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. The CIRP provides practitioners and administrators with valuable insights into college student behaviors, academic preparedness, college expectations, values and goals, motivations for attending the University, and interactions with peers and faculty. Four years later, it is time to take the data off the shelf, dust it off, and utilize this substantive source of information to examine factors predictive of first-year students’ first term/year grade point averages, ongoing retention, and four-year graduation rates. Practitioners and administrators attending this session can learn more about the factors (e.g. behaviors, goals, expectations, etc.) predicting first-year students’ retention, graduation, and grade point averages. The results of these analyses can be used to promote data-driven decision-making for the purposes of developing interventions to reach out to the students most at risk for attrition and prioritizing initiatives to enhance students’ long-term success.
This presentation describes the results of data analyses from a multi-institutional survey of undergraduates who attended six large, public research universities in 2012. Transfer students’ participation in high-impact practices (Kuh, 2008)—in addition to the association between participation in high-impact practices and students’ intellectual and interpersonal developmental outcomes—will be discussed. This presentation is geared toward attendees interested in research and assessment, the benefits of high-impact practices, and transfer students’ development.
The benefits of undergraduate leadership participation are often overlooked, especially at research intensive universities, where the undergraduate experience competes with other institutional priorities. This session shares results from the SERU survey and provides evidence for the benefits of participation in undergraduate leadership across large, public research universities, with a focus on assessment of the leadership minor at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. The data shared will provide useful evidence for leadership educators seeking to justify investment in undergraduate leadership opportunities.
This presentation was delivered at the annual Association for Institutional Research Upper Midwest conference. Staff at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities Libraries undertook a pilot project to measure how often, and in what ways, students used the Libraries’ various services. Partnering with the University’s Office of Institutional Research, Libraries staff also investigated whether students who use library services tend to be more successful academically or had higher retention. This presentation highlights the results of data collection and analyses.
This presentation was delivered at the annual Association for the Study of Higher Education conference. Colleges and universities are increasingly internationalizing their curricular and co-curricular efforts on campuses; subsequently, it is important to compare whether participation in study abroad or on-campus global/international activities may be associated with students’ self-reported development of global, international, and intercultural (GII) competencies. This study examined undergraduate students’ participation in study abroad and on-campus global/international activities within nine large, public research universities in the United States (n = 15,807). Framed within contact theory and person-environment-interaction theory, the results of this study suggested that students’ participation in activities related to internationalization at home—participation in on-campus global/international activities such as enrollment in global/international coursework, interactions with international students, and participation in global/international co-curricular activities—may yield greater benefits than study abroad for students’ development of GII competencies.
This presentation was delivered at the annual Association for the Study of Higher Education conference. Colleges are under increasing pressure to develop future citizens who are interested in--and capable of--creating positive social change and improving their communities. Using data from the multi-institutional SERU survey, this study suggests students' participation in leadership positions can promote their engagement in social change.
Presented at the 2012 Library Assessment Conference, this poster describes the results of a collaborative assessment project undertaken by the University Libraries and the Office of Institutional Research. Results suggest a positive association between students' library use and students' retention and academic success. This poster won the "Judges' Choice" award at the conference.
Utilizing a random sample of 836 first-time, full-time freshmen at the University of Minnesota we track the inclusion of students in the University's Facebook network at the end of the fall 2007 term and explore its potential relationship with a student's first-year retention decision. While simply joining the University of Minnesota's Facebook network does not appear to impact a student's retention decision, we find that the number of friends a student identifies within the University's social network is positively related to student retention. Additionally, we find that in addition to size, the structure of student's social network is also related to a student's retention decision.
Presented at the American Evaluation Association annual conference, this presentation was featured in a panel of two other universities from the Twin Cities. A large, public research university typically has several stakeholders spanning across the state in which it is located; consequently, responding to the needs of these diverse constituents requires strategic planning. Further, challenges in collecting student data, reporting the data to constituents, and sharing the results of data-driven decisions made with student data can be exacerbated in a highly decentralized environment. This portion of the presentation highlights the ways in which a small institutional research office at a large, public university has proactively shared the results of assessment research and student data with the university community, developed effective partnerships across the university with regard to data analysis and reporting, and created a framework for undergraduate assessment.
Presented at the Minnesota College Professionals Association, this discussion focuses on the assessment of the StrengthsQuest initiatives at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Since fall 2011, the University of Minnesota Twin-Cities has offered over 10,000 incoming first-year students the Clifton StrengthsFinder inventory within a larger framework of the StrengthsQuest higher education program. This workshop highlights a collaborative campus-wide approach to building students’ strengths, with a focus on providing insights, strategies, and recommendations to practitioners seeking to implement strengths-based activities with students, integrate a strengths-based philosophy on campus, and build a firm foundation for assessment.
Presented at the Minnesota College Professionals Association, this discussion focuses on the engagement of low-income and working-class students in higher education. Research suggests that students from lower social class backgrounds are historically underrepresented in higher education, less likely to feel a sense of belonging on campus, and less likely to persist toward graduation. This presentation examines intersections between students' social class and their participation in the types of co-curricular experiences that can enhance students' belonging and retention. In increasing their awareness of social class, student affairs practitioners can discover institutional and structural barriers preventing lower/working-class students from full participation in college.
Presented at the National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) annual conference, this presentation provides insights into the experiences of working-class students in large, public research universities. Using the Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) national survey, results indicate that working-class students have less engagement and a lower sense of belonging as compared to their middle/upper-class peers. Practical strategies that academic advisers can use to engage working-class students in large universities are discussed.
Presented at the Association for Institutional Research annual forum. Assessing the cost of higher education has become a critical policy priority. However, this effort is frustrated by limited information and standards. The Delta Cost Project has attempted to address this by assembling data on costs across sectors and levels of higher education, but their reports create as much confusion as clarity. Analysis shows that the overwhelming majority of variance in educational spending between institutions can be explained by differences in the disciplinary and degree level portfolio. Accounting for these differences allows institutions to benchmark themselves and overseers to evaluate the performance of their institutions.
Presented at the Association for Institutional Research annual forum, this presentation presents information about the use social class indicators in institutional and educational research.Social class and related indicators (socioeconomic status, parental education, and other forms of social/cultural capital) are strong determinants of students’ access and success in higher education. This presentation explores the use of different social class indicators in institutional and academic research, with a focus on the theoretical basis for social class, current demographic trends in higher education, the advantages/disadvantages to measuring social class, and the credibility of students' self-identification in a social class. Using the Student Experience in the Research University survey, the study also examines differential relationships between social class variables on students' sense of belonging on campus.
Presented at the Association for Institutional Research annual forum, this presentation presents information about the use of parental education variables among college students. Many scholars, federal agencies, and institutions define first-generation students using different criteria; furthermore, most researchers collapse students into dichotomous categories of first-generation/non-first-generation. Both strategies of defining first-generation students may mask important insights about first-generation students--insights that can be highlighted by using a differentiated definition of first-generation status based on varying degrees of parents' educational attainment. Using the multi-institutional Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) survey, this paper presents evidence that suggests a more nuanced understanding of parents’ educational achievement can highlight the unique experiences of students from different parental educational backgrounds and potentially benefit research, policy, and practice.
This IR in Practice session conveys information related to the assessment of an innovative, campuswide utilization of a strengths-based, positive psychology framework. In fall 2011, the University of Minnesota Twin-Cities (UMNTC) offered 5,400 new first-year students the StrengthsFinder assessment within a larger framework of the StrengthsQuest higher education program. This session discusses the approaches UMNTC used in developing a conceptual framework for the assessment of strengths outcomes, describes the measures and instruments used in assessment, and discusses the collaborations developed between institutional research, student affairs, and academic affairs.
Presented at the 6th annual SERU/UCUES Research Symposium. In this research paper, we utilize data from the Community and Civic Engagement Module of the multi-institutional Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) survey in order to estimate potential direct andindirect effects of community engagement experiences on undergraduate students' academic and social gains. A latent variable structural equation model of student achievement was developed to explore the potential relationship between participation in community-based learning activities (including enrollment in a course with a service-learning component and involvement in community based research) and students' perceptions of academic and cultural development. Specifcally, our empirical investigation addresses two questions: Does participation in community-based learning opportunities contribute, either directly or indirectly, to participating students' improved academic learning and skills; and does participation in community-based learning opportunities contribute, either directly or indirectly, to participating students' prosocial skills development? We also refect on key issues to consider when using SERU data that are related to community-based learning, and the Community and Civic Engagement Module.
Held at the annual American College Personnel Association convention, this presentation highlights research conducted in partnership with Career Services at the University of Minnesota. Using a sample of first-year students who completed the Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) survey (n = 1,864), of whom approximately one-third (n = 666) enrolled in career courses, this study suggests that students who enrolled in career courses are more socially involved than those who did not enroll in career courses. Contending that social involvement increases students' social networks, it is suggested that career courses can, in turn, increase students' social capital.
Held at the annual American College Personnel Association convention, this presentation suggests that students who identify as working-class have lower social capital because they experience more difficulty finding classmates with whom to study, faculty/staff to help them navigate campus, and people on campus who share their backgrounds and experiences. Using Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) data, it was also discovered that working-class students have a lower sense of belonging compared to their middle/upper-class peers. Suggestions to create a welcoming campus climate for working-class students are included.
Given the disproportionately low numbers of underrepresented minorities (URM) in STEM career, promoting the graduate school aspirations of URM STEM students is crucial in continuing to diversify the STEM workforce; consequently, it is important for universities to identify high-impact practices that can encourage URM STEM students to aspire to graduate education. This presentation explores the relationship between participation in high-impact practices and graduate school aspirations among URM STEM students at 11 large, public research universities. The results suggest that URM STEM students who participate in community service and research with faculty are twice as likely to aspire to graduate education compared to their peers who did not engage in those high-impact practices.
This poster presentation highlights the global and intercultural engagement of UMNTC students. Using Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) data, it was discovered that over 80% of UMNTC students interact with students from outside the U.S. in classes and in social settings occasionally to very often. Additionally, some elements of intercultural/global engagement lead to greater development in intercultural/global skills than other activities.
Held at the annual Tate Conference for Academic Advising, this presentation used Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) data and investigated the relationship between students' reasons for choosing their academic majors and their academic engagement and sense of belonging. Students who tended to choose majors for intrinsic or internal extrinsic reasons tended to have higher engagement and sense of belonging, whereas students who choose majors for external extrinsic reasons tended to have less engagement and sense of belonging.
Presented at the 31st Annual Conference on the First Year Experience, this poster presentation addresses differences in sense of belonging, academic engagement, and mental health between working-class and middle/upper-class first-year undergraduate students. Utilizing the Student Experience in the Research University survey, administered to 240,000+ undergraduate students enrolled at 10 large, public universities in 2010, this study suggests that working-class students have lower sense of belonging and higher rates of depression and stress as compared to their middle/upper-class peers.
Held at the 31st Annual Conference on the First Year Experience, this study examined the academic and social benefits of new student orientation (Welcome Week) at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Utilizing the Student Experience in the Research University survey, administered to all first-year students in 2010, this study suggests that students who participated in Welcome Week had a higher sense of belonging, higher fall and spring semester cumulative grade point averages, and higher retention from their first-year to their second year. These benefits persisted when controlling for additional demographic, college experience, and engagement factors.
This study examined the relationship between advising satisfaction and first-year students' sense of belonging and retention to their second year. Using the Student Experience in the Research University survey, this study suggests that students' satisfaction with faculty, peer, college/staff, and department advisers is positively predictive of their sense of belonging while only students' satisfaction with college/staff advisers is predictive of their retention.
A presentation/tour of various undergraduate data sources available on the OIR website that may be useful for academic advisors of undergraduates.
Presented at the International Association for Research on Service-learning and Community Engagement (IARSLCE) 2011 Annual Conference in Chicago from November 2-4, 2011
Presented at the 2011 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
This presentation examines the relationship between participation in community service and the development of leadership values among a random sample of 1,107 undergraduates who took the Multi-Institutional Study of Leadership (MSL) survey at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. The MSL is an annual, national survey of leadership development among college students. It explores the role of higher education in developing leadership capacities with a special focus on specific environmental conditions that foster leadership development. The MSL is developed under the Social Change Model (HERI, 1996), which describes leadership as a purposeful, collaborative, values-driven process. Its central principles—social responsibility and change for the common good—are assessed through eight core values that describe students’ level of self-awareness and ability to work with others.
Using the framework of the Social Change Model (HERI, 1996) and Astin’s (1993) Input-Environment-Output model, multiple regression was used to examine the relationship between participation in community service and the eight core values when controlling for demographic factors, precollege participation in activities, and precollege leadership antecedents. This presentation highlights these findings and demonstrates an effective partnership between institutional research and student affairs.
Presented at the 2011 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
In 2009, the University of Minnesota Office of Institutional research, in partnership with a steering team of select faculty and the Of- fice of Communications launched a massive effort to redesign its biennial HR survey, whose results in past years had been largely ignored by Uni- versity policy makers. In addition to a substantial paring down of the sur- vey instrument, the standard University-, Campus- and College-level re- ports were redesigned to provide more and immediate and actionable in- formation. This sparked a greater demand for more detailed drill- downs. To encourage greater use of this wealth of data, OIR developed an Excel-based ad-hoc report generator to quickly provide results for the seemingly infinite variations on the most commonly asked-for types of reports. To date, since its development less than a year ago, OIR has re- leased over 250 reports to administrators at all levels.
This presentation is a demonstration of how a combination of project plan- ning and some clever Excel tools allowed us to quickly and easily prepare customized reports for campus clients. Items that will be discussed in- clude our template/design model, our possibility matrix for determining whether or not a request for drill-down data meets minimum privacy standards, and Excel tools such as pivot tables, lookup tables, and macros that saved OIR from being buried by the fruits of its success.
Note: This is the first video to utilize our new screen capture software. Len has recorded the presentation and it can be viewed using the Video resource.
Presented at the 2011 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
This study compared the outcomes for less prepared and well prepared first year college students enrolled in learning communities at the University of Minnesota. Less prepared students were retained at the same rate, though their first year grades were significantly lower. In a second study the less prepared students were compared to an earlier cohort of matched pairs. The matched pairs had similar rates of retention and similar grades. A third study compared the responses of less prepared and well prepared students to items on the SERU survey. Less prepared students reported more gains in items related to the learning outcome communicating effectively. Less prepared and more prepared students reported similar gains on the outcome appreciating diversity. Less prepared students were as satisfied as well prepared students with their sense of belonging to the institution and were as likely to say they would choose to attend the same institution again, but they were less satisfied with their grades, social experience and academic experience.
Presented at the 2011 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Greater numbers of students from non-college educated families are enrolling in higher education than ever; as the numbers of first-generation college students increases on college campuses (Choy, 2001), so do concerns about their success rates as compared to their non-first generation peers. This paper examines the academic and social engagement of first-generation college students who attended large, public research universities in 2009. It was found that first-generation students have lower levels of academic and social engagement as compared to their non-first-generation peers. Additionally, regression analyses were used to examine the association between academic and social engagement factors and academic and developmental outcomes among first-generation students so that administrators and practitioners can focus their efforts in areas that are associated with student outcomes.
Presented at the 2011 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Popular methods that attempt to account for discipline in salary studies such as subdividing the population by discipline or market proxies that estimate supply and demand of new Ph.D.s fall short of their intended explanatory power or lead to inappropriate conclusions due to misunderstandings of the nature of academic faculty markets. This study demonstrates how the single variable: average peer institution faculty salary by CIP within rank – obtained from the American Association of Universities Data Exchange (AAUDE) – dramatically improves the predictive power of a salary model, accounting for more than 80% of the variance for assistant professor salaries alone.
Presentation made at the Freshmen Seminar Workshop for Faculty at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities campus.
Presentation highlighted demographic and academic profiles of first-year (FY) at the U, examined survey results by FY on factors related to academic engagement and GPA, examined participation in freshmen seminars and illustrated survey results by those who enroll in freshmen seminars vs. not and the relationship with academic performance.
Presented for the 2011 CSRDE Webinar Series. The Symposium was sponsored by the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (CSRDE).
While the literature on postsecondary student success identifies important academic and social factors associated with student outcomes, one question that persists concerns the influence of financial aid. We use the Nation Student Clearinghouse's StudentTracker service to develop a more complete model of graduation, transfer success, or dropout.
Presented at the Focusing on the First Year conference on the Twin Cities campus.
Nationally, student attrition is more likely to occur in a student's first-year of college (Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005). Retention literature often points to the importance of academic and social engagement of students in their persistence and completion (Kuh, 2009); therefore, this study examines the academic and social engagement of first-year students at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Academic engagement factors, such as preparedness for class, time spent reading and studying for class, and contributions to classes will be explored. Additionally, social engagement factors, such as participation in clubs or organizations, time spent socializing with friends or partying, and sense of social belonging will also be examined. The data is drawn from the 2010 Student Experience in the Research University survey, which was completed by approximately 2,000 first-year students in spring 2010.
In addition to developing a picture around first-year students academic and social engagement, this study further explores the relationship between academic and social engagement and students' cumulative grade point averages; for example, preliminary findings indicate that academic disengagement behaviors, such as turning in assignments late and skipping class, have a negative relationship with grade point average, while positive engagement behaviors, such as revising papers before submission and contributing to class discussions, have a positive relationship with grade point average. This presentation will provide participants with an enhanced understanding of the academic and social engagement of first-year students at the University of Minnesota.
Presented at the NASPA 2010 Annual Conference, NASPA is also known as Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education.
Immigration issues inevitable impact student affairs professionals. With greater numbers of immigrant students accessing higher education, it is important to explore relevant issues, needs, and strategies. Using the Student Experience in the Research University (SERU) survey, this workshop will highlight immigrant students' sense of belonging and satisfaction responses. Specific learning outcomes for student affairs professionals and educators will be included.
Presented at the 2010 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
Higher education is a labor-intensive industry (Johnsrud, 2002; Levin, 1991). As in any other organization, understanding what satisfies its personnel is essential for improving productivity. However, how staff members perceive, respond, and behave to pay, benefit, and other workplace-related issues has not been studied with as much intensity as for faculty groups. Their jobs in academia are becoming increasingly professionalized: important for supporting academic productivity and managing administrative efficiency.
Given the classical duality theory by Herzberg (1959) and existing models for administrative job satisfaction (Volkwein & Zhou, 2003), this paper investigates how seniority and job category explain the satisfaction of staff members, as well as with other factors at a large, public, research-intensive institution. The data used are from a biennial system-wide employment satisfaction survey and analyzed using multiple linear regression. Out of 18,719 invitees for the 2010 survey, Instructional Professionals and Administrators and other Staff represent 79% of the survey population.
Presented at the 2010 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
The presentation will outline a program assessment design for improving the educational and personal experiences of University of Minnesota students. A recent assessment of a scholarship program for at-risk students will be used to illustrate the approach.
Donors, alumni relations and academic affairs units are often involved in the development of scholarship programs aimed at improving the success of at-risk students. Often these programs have a financial, programmatic and/or advisory component aimed at improving student success. Collaborations across these units with institutional research and assessment professionals can provide meaningful exchanges of ideas/perspectives and open up unique opportunities for assessing the impact of participation in these programs.
Student success is often measured in terms of academic performance, retention and graduation rates. Plugging a general program participation variable into comprehensive regression model of student success provides a baseline for assessing the effectiveness of a program while controlling for the effects of other factors. Used in conjunction with qualitative approaches [i.e., focus groups, surveys] we can broaden our outcomes of interest as needed. Along with developing a standard reporting template, this approach provides a flexible framework for assessing similar programs in a timely, consistent, and responsible manner that serves multiple needs.
Presented at the 2010 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
Given the increasing emphasis on public engagement on many college campuses, it is important to assess the extent to which engagement opportunities provide meaningful and valuable experiences for college students. While there is growing evidence to support the notion that public engagement opportunities (e.g. service-learning, volunteerism) contributes to student academic success, Eyler, Giles, and Gray (1999) caution that there is no consensus on the impact of engagement experiences and academic achievement indicators, such as grade point average. Given the apparent lack of agreement in the research, this study attempts to identify if there is a relationship between participation in community based learning activities and first-year achievement in college. To assess if there is an independent relationship between participating in different communitybased activities and first-year student grade point average, this study utilizes a sample of first-time, full-time freshmen students enrolled at the University of Minnesota-Twin Cities in Fall 2009 who participated in a unique survey of student engagement (the SERU survey) administered during Spring 2010.
Presented at the 2010 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
The neutrality of an IR office can be put to the test when tasked with conducting an equity study. Even the best intentioned and well reasoned study is subject to political considerations that have little to do with the pursuit of truth. From considerations of what variables to include in a regression model to interpretation of results, what it said, how it is said, and from whom a message comes are all as important as any actual statistical results.
This session presents a road map to some of the pitfalls an IR office can face when asked to perform an equity study. Resources from the literature as well as anecdotal experience are used to illustrate the often exasperating decisions and negotiations institutional researchers will have to face when moving beyond the realm of pure research and into studies that could have a large and immediate impact on the University and its employees and students lives.
Presented at the 2010 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Presented at the 2009 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
Presented at the 2009 meeting of the Association of Institutional Research in the Upper Midwest (AIRUM).
Presented at the 2009 National Symposium on Student Retention. The Symposium was sponsored by the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (CSRDE).
Presented at the University of Minnesota Analysts Group meeting.
Presented at the 2009 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
2008 AIR Best Paper presented at the 2009 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Presented at the 2009 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum
Presented at the 2009 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum
Presented at the 2008 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Presented at the 2008 Annual Association of Institutional Research Forum.
Presented at the 2007 meeting of the Association for Institutional Research Upper Midwest.
Presented at the 2007 meeting of the Association for Institutional Research Upper Midwest.
Paper presented at the 2007 National Symposium on Student Retention. The Symposium was sponsored by the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (CSRDE).
Paper presented at the 2007 National Symposium on Student Retention. The Symposium was sponsored by the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (CSRDE).
Paper presented at the 2006 meeting of the Association for Institutional Research Upper Midwest.
Paper presented at the 2006 National Symposium on Student Retention. The Symposium was sponsored by the Consortium for Student Data Exchange (CSRDE).
